Rabu, 31 Agustus 2016
Master Programs that are currently offered at AUEB.
Knowledge and Religious Experience, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
What is the character and general structure of the universe in
which we live? Is there a permanent
element in the constitution of this universe? How are we related
to it? What place do we occupy in it,
and what is the kind of conduct that befits the place we occ
upy? These questions are common to
religion, philosophy, and higher poetry. But the kind of knowledge
that poetic inspiration brings is
essentially individual in its character; it is figurative,
vague, and indefinite. Religion, in its more
advanced forms, rises higher than poetry. It moves from individua
l to society. In its attitude towards the
Ultimate Reality it is opposed to the limitations of man;
it enlarges his claims and holds out the
prospect of nothing less than a direct vision of Reality. Is
it then possible to apply the purely rational
method of philosophy to religion? The spirit of philosophy is one
of free inquiry. It suspects all
authority. Its function is to trace the uncritical assumptions
of human thought to their hiding places, and
in this pursuit it may finally end in denial or a frank admi
ssion of the incapacity of pure reason to reach
the Ultimate Reality. The essence of religion, on the other
hand, is faith; and faith, like the bird, sees its
‘trackless way’ unattended by intellect which, in the words o
f the great mystic poet of Islam, ‘only
waylays the living heart of man and robs it of the invisible
wealth of life that lies within’.
1
Yet it cannot
be denied that faith is more than mere feeling. It has s
omething like a cognitive content, and the
existence of rival parties— scholastics and mystics— in
the history of religion shows that idea is a vital
element in religion. Apart from this, religion on its doct
rinal side, as defined by Professor Whitehead,
is ‘a system of general truths which have the effect of trans
forming character when they are sincerely
held and vividly apprehended’.
2
Now, since the transformation and guidance of man’s inner and outer
life is the essential aim of religion, it is obvious that
the general truths which it embodies must not
remain unsettled. No one would hazard action on the basis of a
doubtful principle of conduct. Indeed,
in view of its function, religion stands in greater need of a
rational foundation of its ultimate principles
than even the dogmas of science. Science may ignore a ratio
nal metaphysics; indeed, it has ignored it
so far. Religion can hardly afford to ignore the search for a
reconciliation of the oppositions of
experience and a justification of the environment in which hum
anity finds itself. That is why Professor
Whitehead has acutely remarked that ‘the ages of faith a
re the ages of rationalism’.
3
But to rationalize
faith is not to admit the superiority of philosophy over reli
gion. Philosophy, no doubt, has jurisdiction
to judge religion, but what is to be judged is of such a nature
that it will not submit to the jurisdiction of
philosophy except on its own terms. While sitting in judgement on
religion, philosophy cannot give
religion an inferior place among its data. Religion is not a
departmental affair; it is neither mere
thought, nor mere feeling, nor mere action; it is an expressi
on of the whole man. Thus, in the
evaluation of religion, philosophy must recognize the central pos
ition of religion and has no other
alternative but to admit it as something focal in the pro
cess of reflective synthesis. Nor is there any
reason to suppose that thought and intuition are essentially o
pposed to each other. They spring up from
the same root and complement each other. The one grasps Re
ality piecemeal, the other grasps it in its
wholeness. The one fixes its gaze on the eternal, the other
on the temporal aspect of Reality. The one is
present enjoyment of the whole of Reality; the other aims at
traversing the whole by slowly specifying
and closing up the various regions of the whole for exclusive obser
vation. Both are in need of each
other for mutual rejuvenation. Both seek visions of the same Re
ality which reveals itself to them in
accordance with their function in life. In fact, intuiti
on, as Bergson rightly says, is only a higher kind of
intellect.
4
The search for rational foundations in Islam may be regarded t
o have begun with the Prophet himself.
His constant prayer was: ‘God! grant me knowledge of the ultim
ate nature of things!’
5
The work of
later mystics and non-mystic rationalists forms an exceedingly
instructive chapter in the history of our
culture, inasmuch as it reveals a longing for a coherent system
of ideas, a spirit of whole-hearted
devotion to truth, as well as the limitations of the age, whi
ch rendered the various theological
movements in Islam less fruitful than they might have been i
n a different age. As we all know, Greek
philosophy has been a great cultural force in the history of Isl
am. Yet a careful study of the Qur’«n and
the various schools of scholastic theology that arose under the ins
piration of Greek thought disclose the
remarkable fact that while Greek philosophy very much broadened
the outlook of Muslim thinkers, it,
on the whole, obscured their vision of the Qur’«n. Socrates concentra
ted his attention on the human
world alone. To him the proper study of man was man and not
the world of plants, insects, and stars.
How unlike the spirit of the Qur’«n, which sees in the humble
bee a recipient of Divine inspiration
6
and
constantly calls upon the reader to observe the perpetual c
hange of the winds, the alternation of day and
night, the clouds,
7
the starry heavens,
8
and the planets swimming through infinite space!
9
As a true
Rabu, 24 Agustus 2016
Sufi shaykh in China
Several years ago, I
became interested in the practice of Sufism in China while I was
visiting Linxia in the north-western province of Gansu. Known as
“China’s Mecca” to Chinese Muslims, Linxia is a centre of Sufi practices
in China. Adherents of the Qadiriyya and Kubrawiyya orders are found
there, as well as those of the two main Chinese Sufi sects of the
Naqshbandi order, Naqshbandi Khufiyya and Naqshbandi Jahriyya, amid many
highly decorated Sufi shrines. These are known as “gongbei” in the
local Chinese dialect, this name being thought to originate from the
Arabic qubba or Persian gonbad. During a visit to the Great
Gongbei of Linxia, the shrine of the Sufi master Qi Jingyi (1656-1719), I
learnt about the history of the Qadiriyya Sufi in China, the country’s
oldest Sufi order. It is said to have been introduced by Khawja
Abdullah, a 29th generation descendant of the Prophet Mohammed. Arriving
by sea at Canton in 1674, he travelled inland, preaching in both the
north-western and south-western regions of China. On his death, he was
buried in Langzhong in today’s south-western province of Sichuan. His
shrine, the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei, is one of the three most holy places of
the Qadiriyya Sufi in China, revered by adherents throughout the
country.
On a visit to China last year, I had the opportunity of
visiting Langzhong and the shrine of Khawja Abdullah. An old city that
is rich in Three Kingdom culture, Langzhong is well-known as a feng shui
city, laid out in line with the Chinese philosophical system of
harmonising the human existence with the surrounding environment.
Surrounded by waters and mountains that are associated with legends of
the two greatest feng shui masters of the Tang Dynasty, Yuan Tiangang
and Li Chengfeng, the historic town is preserved as a heritage site and
is a popular tourist attraction. Khawja Abdullah’s shrine, also known
locally as Baba Shrine, is, however, not open to the public.
Located
at the foot of Panlong Hill by the River Jialing, the shrine compound
covers an area of 23,000 square metres, with the shrine itself
surrounded by woods and bamboo forests. Although within the territory of
Langzhong, it is not subject to the local authority, but is
administered by the Qadiriyya Sufi community to which it belongs. Since
1998, it has been managed by the administrators of the Great Gongbei of
Linxia, who appoint the keepers of the shrine in accordance with the
norms and values of the Qadiriyya Sufi.
At the time of my visit, a
young clergyman from Linxia had recently taken up the post of keeper of
the shrine. Although he was reluctant to let me, a non-Muslim, enter
the building, he provided me with much useful information both about the
shrine and about the stories related to it and also allowed me to take
photographs of the exterior.
The keeper is normally appointed for
a three-year period and leads a team of five to 10 people, who handle
maintenance and administration as well as carry out religious functions.
This has been the case ever since the shrine was built, apart from a
short interruption during China’s Cultural Revolution.
During the
latter part of his life, Khawja Abdullah spent much time preaching in
Langzhong, thanks to his close relationship with one of his followers,
Ma Ziyun, the military governor of North Sichuan. One day, according to
legend, Khawja Abdullah was walking with Ma on the slopes of Panlong
Hill when he pointed to an area of land at the foot of the hill and said
that he would like to be buried there. He died the next day, and Ma and
other local Sufis laid him to rest in the place he had indicated.
Upon
hearing the news of his death, his greatest disciple Qi Jingyi,
generally regarded as the founder of the Chinese Qadiriyya Sufi order,
immediately came to Langzhong and set about building a shrine above the
grave. Completed in 1691, the shrine was given by Qi Jingyi the name of
Jiuzhaoting, which means “Pavilion of Ever-Lasting Light”.
Local
Qadiriyya Sufis associate many miraculous legends with the presence of
Khawja Abdullah in Langzhong, an indication of their deep respect for
him. It is clear, however, that he had a major impact on the spiritual
life of people in the region. He is portrayed as a man of great
personality, with a good command of the Chinese language and knowledge
of Chinese religions and philosophies. Before his arrival in Langzhong,
there were already groups of Muslims in the area. They were followers of
Qadim, a Hanafi school of the Sunni tradition, the oldest school of
Islam in China, which was first introduced by Muslim traders to coastal
China in the early centuries of Islam, and has remained a dominant
Islamic school in China.
His preaching is said to have attracted
large numbers of people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, who became
followers of the Qadiriyya Sufi. Several thousand Muslims still live in a
nearby village, while a mosque dating to the Qing period in the old
quarter of Langzhong town still serves the Muslim community there. The
mosque’s imam, like the keeper of the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei, is also from
Linxia, and provided me with much information on the current status of
the local Muslim community.
The layout of the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei
follows the tradition of Chinese courtyard architecture but with
Islamic ritual requirements incorporated. It is orientated south-north,
with the main entrance gateway at the south, approached along a path
through the woods. This then leads to a second gateway, beyond which
there is a screen in front of the entrance into the enclosure of the
shrine itself. Here, an imposing wooden archway leads to the main hall
with the tomb of Khawja Abdullah at its northern end.
While the
orientation of the shrine emphasises the south-north axis, a
characteristic of the Chinese architectural tradition, the builders also
had to address the issue of orientation towards the qibla, as required
in Islamic architecture, which in southern China lies to the west. To
take account of this, gateways orientated to the east and west were also
built, this long having been the architectural practice of Hui Muslims
across China.
I entered into the shrine compound through the
eastern gate, the main southern gate being closed. Having passed an
elegant, well-maintained Qing building which now functions as an office,
I walked westward through the bamboo forests to reach the enclosure of
the shrine itself. This has two gates. One, on the south axis between
the spiritual screen and the wooden archway, appeared not to be in use,
so I entered through the east gateway. It was here that I met the keeper
of the shrine.
Apart from the main gateway in the south, which
is a new addition, the main structures of the shrine are mostly from the
Qing period. The local north Sichuan architectural tradition is
reflected in the use of building materials and in the decorative
elements. The bricks of which the shrine is built are mainly of local
manufacture, while the decorative tiles and the elaborate wood and brick
carvings are fine examples of local craftsmanship. It is noteworthy
that the figurative motifs generally favoured in Chinese architectural
decorations are carefully avoided, demonstrating the way in which
Chinese Muslims adjust to Islamic requirements.
The multi-tiered
pavilion which dominates the roofline of the main hall marks the grave
of Khawja Abdullah. Visible from afar, it is a characteristic of gongbei
architecture, especially as seen in the north-west regions of China.
Well-preserved and well-maintained, the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei is evidence
of the long history and of the firm roots of the Qadiriyya Sufi order
since it first reached China more than three centuries ago.
Qing
Chen is completing her PhD thesis at London’s School of Oriental and
African Studies on the history and architecture of the early mosques of
southern China.
became interested in the practice of Sufism in China while I was
visiting Linxia in the north-western province of Gansu. Known as
“China’s Mecca” to Chinese Muslims, Linxia is a centre of Sufi practices
in China. Adherents of the Qadiriyya and Kubrawiyya orders are found
there, as well as those of the two main Chinese Sufi sects of the
Naqshbandi order, Naqshbandi Khufiyya and Naqshbandi Jahriyya, amid many
highly decorated Sufi shrines. These are known as “gongbei” in the
local Chinese dialect, this name being thought to originate from the
Arabic qubba or Persian gonbad. During a visit to the Great
Gongbei of Linxia, the shrine of the Sufi master Qi Jingyi (1656-1719), I
learnt about the history of the Qadiriyya Sufi in China, the country’s
oldest Sufi order. It is said to have been introduced by Khawja
Abdullah, a 29th generation descendant of the Prophet Mohammed. Arriving
by sea at Canton in 1674, he travelled inland, preaching in both the
north-western and south-western regions of China. On his death, he was
buried in Langzhong in today’s south-western province of Sichuan. His
shrine, the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei, is one of the three most holy places of
the Qadiriyya Sufi in China, revered by adherents throughout the
country.
On a visit to China last year, I had the opportunity of
visiting Langzhong and the shrine of Khawja Abdullah. An old city that
is rich in Three Kingdom culture, Langzhong is well-known as a feng shui
city, laid out in line with the Chinese philosophical system of
harmonising the human existence with the surrounding environment.
Surrounded by waters and mountains that are associated with legends of
the two greatest feng shui masters of the Tang Dynasty, Yuan Tiangang
and Li Chengfeng, the historic town is preserved as a heritage site and
is a popular tourist attraction. Khawja Abdullah’s shrine, also known
locally as Baba Shrine, is, however, not open to the public.
Located
at the foot of Panlong Hill by the River Jialing, the shrine compound
covers an area of 23,000 square metres, with the shrine itself
surrounded by woods and bamboo forests. Although within the territory of
Langzhong, it is not subject to the local authority, but is
administered by the Qadiriyya Sufi community to which it belongs. Since
1998, it has been managed by the administrators of the Great Gongbei of
Linxia, who appoint the keepers of the shrine in accordance with the
norms and values of the Qadiriyya Sufi.
At the time of my visit, a
young clergyman from Linxia had recently taken up the post of keeper of
the shrine. Although he was reluctant to let me, a non-Muslim, enter
the building, he provided me with much useful information both about the
shrine and about the stories related to it and also allowed me to take
photographs of the exterior.
The keeper is normally appointed for
a three-year period and leads a team of five to 10 people, who handle
maintenance and administration as well as carry out religious functions.
This has been the case ever since the shrine was built, apart from a
short interruption during China’s Cultural Revolution.
During the
latter part of his life, Khawja Abdullah spent much time preaching in
Langzhong, thanks to his close relationship with one of his followers,
Ma Ziyun, the military governor of North Sichuan. One day, according to
legend, Khawja Abdullah was walking with Ma on the slopes of Panlong
Hill when he pointed to an area of land at the foot of the hill and said
that he would like to be buried there. He died the next day, and Ma and
other local Sufis laid him to rest in the place he had indicated.
Upon
hearing the news of his death, his greatest disciple Qi Jingyi,
generally regarded as the founder of the Chinese Qadiriyya Sufi order,
immediately came to Langzhong and set about building a shrine above the
grave. Completed in 1691, the shrine was given by Qi Jingyi the name of
Jiuzhaoting, which means “Pavilion of Ever-Lasting Light”.
Local
Qadiriyya Sufis associate many miraculous legends with the presence of
Khawja Abdullah in Langzhong, an indication of their deep respect for
him. It is clear, however, that he had a major impact on the spiritual
life of people in the region. He is portrayed as a man of great
personality, with a good command of the Chinese language and knowledge
of Chinese religions and philosophies. Before his arrival in Langzhong,
there were already groups of Muslims in the area. They were followers of
Qadim, a Hanafi school of the Sunni tradition, the oldest school of
Islam in China, which was first introduced by Muslim traders to coastal
China in the early centuries of Islam, and has remained a dominant
Islamic school in China.
His preaching is said to have attracted
large numbers of people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, who became
followers of the Qadiriyya Sufi. Several thousand Muslims still live in a
nearby village, while a mosque dating to the Qing period in the old
quarter of Langzhong town still serves the Muslim community there. The
mosque’s imam, like the keeper of the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei, is also from
Linxia, and provided me with much information on the current status of
the local Muslim community.
The layout of the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei
follows the tradition of Chinese courtyard architecture but with
Islamic ritual requirements incorporated. It is orientated south-north,
with the main entrance gateway at the south, approached along a path
through the woods. This then leads to a second gateway, beyond which
there is a screen in front of the entrance into the enclosure of the
shrine itself. Here, an imposing wooden archway leads to the main hall
with the tomb of Khawja Abdullah at its northern end.
While the
orientation of the shrine emphasises the south-north axis, a
characteristic of the Chinese architectural tradition, the builders also
had to address the issue of orientation towards the qibla, as required
in Islamic architecture, which in southern China lies to the west. To
take account of this, gateways orientated to the east and west were also
built, this long having been the architectural practice of Hui Muslims
across China.
I entered into the shrine compound through the
eastern gate, the main southern gate being closed. Having passed an
elegant, well-maintained Qing building which now functions as an office,
I walked westward through the bamboo forests to reach the enclosure of
the shrine itself. This has two gates. One, on the south axis between
the spiritual screen and the wooden archway, appeared not to be in use,
so I entered through the east gateway. It was here that I met the keeper
of the shrine.
Apart from the main gateway in the south, which
is a new addition, the main structures of the shrine are mostly from the
Qing period. The local north Sichuan architectural tradition is
reflected in the use of building materials and in the decorative
elements. The bricks of which the shrine is built are mainly of local
manufacture, while the decorative tiles and the elaborate wood and brick
carvings are fine examples of local craftsmanship. It is noteworthy
that the figurative motifs generally favoured in Chinese architectural
decorations are carefully avoided, demonstrating the way in which
Chinese Muslims adjust to Islamic requirements.
The multi-tiered
pavilion which dominates the roofline of the main hall marks the grave
of Khawja Abdullah. Visible from afar, it is a characteristic of gongbei
architecture, especially as seen in the north-west regions of China.
Well-preserved and well-maintained, the Jiuzhaoting Gongbei is evidence
of the long history and of the firm roots of the Qadiriyya Sufi order
since it first reached China more than three centuries ago.
Qing
Chen is completing her PhD thesis at London’s School of Oriental and
African Studies on the history and architecture of the early mosques of
southern China.
Minggu, 07 Agustus 2016
Pemahaman Agama Yang Relatif atau Semua Agama Benar?....
Kebenaran Agama Yang Relatif
Banyaknya agama adalah sesuatu yang real dalam kehidupan manusia. Manusiapun menanggapi agama dengan cara yang bermacam-macam. Walaupun begitu bisa dipastikan bahwa semua manusia yang beragama menyadari sepenuhnya bahwa agama adalah pandangan hidup yang penting. Agama mengajarkan banyak hal kepada manusia sehingga manusiapun rela berkorban untuknya, bahkan ada yang rela mati demi agamanya. Keyakinan manusia terhadap agamanya jelas dilandasi oleh keyakinannya akan kebenaran agama itu sendiri. Dengan kata lain Agama dan kebenaran tidak bisa dipisahkan. Adalah hal yang tidak masuk akal jika ada manusia meyakini agama yang tidak benar menurutnya.
Apakah Semua Agama Benar?
Banyaknya agama dan pemeluknya telah menjadikan banyaknya sesuatu yang disebut benar. Memang adalah fakta bahwa setiap orang meyakini agamanya benar terlepas dari apa pendapatnya tentang agama lain. Sayangnya hal ini justru menyatakan semua agama benar dalam pandangan pemeluknya. Jadi pertanyaan di atas jawabannya Ya, semua agama benar dalam pandangan pemeluknya. Masalahnya selesai? Ooh tidak , kebenaran yang seperti ini adalah kebenaran yang dimanusiakan dan maafkan saya “kebenaran seperti ini tidak berarti sama sekali”.
Jawaban saya “Tidak semua agama benar”. Yang benar hanyalah agama dari Tuhan. Saya teringat kata-kata “Kebenaran Yang Mutlak dari Tuhan dan selain itu hanya kebenaran relatif”. Saya sependapat dengan kata-kata ini tetapi bukan dalam arti oleh karena kebenaran yang mutlak itu dari Tuhan maka setiap orang tidak bisa mencapainya atau oleh karena siapapun bukan Tuhan maka apa yang dia punya selalu relatif sifatnya.
Banyaknya agama dan pemeluknya telah menjadikan banyaknya sesuatu yang disebut benar. Memang adalah fakta bahwa setiap orang meyakini agamanya benar terlepas dari apa pendapatnya tentang agama lain. Sayangnya hal ini justru menyatakan semua agama benar dalam pandangan pemeluknya. Jadi pertanyaan di atas jawabannya Ya, semua agama benar dalam pandangan pemeluknya. Masalahnya selesai? Ooh tidak , kebenaran yang seperti ini adalah kebenaran yang dimanusiakan dan maafkan saya “kebenaran seperti ini tidak berarti sama sekali”.
Jawaban saya “Tidak semua agama benar”. Yang benar hanyalah agama dari Tuhan. Saya teringat kata-kata “Kebenaran Yang Mutlak dari Tuhan dan selain itu hanya kebenaran relatif”. Saya sependapat dengan kata-kata ini tetapi bukan dalam arti oleh karena kebenaran yang mutlak itu dari Tuhan maka setiap orang tidak bisa mencapainya atau oleh karena siapapun bukan Tuhan maka apa yang dia punya selalu relatif sifatnya.
Kebenaran mutlak adalah milik Tuhan dan manusia bisa mencapainya karena Tuhan menghendaki demikian. Tuhan yang memberi tahu manusia tentang kebenaran mutlak. Memang Tuhan tidak berbicara langsung dengan manusia, tetapi Tuhan berbicara pada manusia yang menjadi utusannya. Utusan Tuhan yang akan Menyampaikan kebenaran itu kepada segenap manusia. Kita mengenal konsep perutusan ini dengan istilah Kenabian. Tuhan menyampaikan kebenaran kepada utusannya dalam bahasa yang disebut wahyu, dan oleh karena utusan itu sendiri manusia yang suatu saat pasti mati maka wahyu ini akan disakralkan dalam bentuk Kitab suci. Jadi kita telah mengenal agama yang benar yaitu agama samawi yang berasal dari Tuhan yang mengandung konsep Kenabian dan memiliki Kitab suci. Ketuhanan bersifat mutlak dan begitu pula Kenabian dan Kitab suci bersifat mutlak karena keduanya mutlak berasal dari Tuhan. Ketuhanan, Kenabian dan Kitab suci adalah Hal yang mutlak dalam agama, dan saya menyebut ketiganya Absolutisme agama.
Setelah Utusan Tuhan tidak ada lagi maka yang mutlak hanyalah Kitab suci atau wahyu Tuhan. Untuk mencapai kebenaran yang mutlak tersebut maka manusia harus merujuk wahyu Tuhan karena wahyu Tuhan bersifat mutlak. Ketika manusia kembali kepada wahyu Tuhan dan memahaminya maka pada saat Inilah sesuatu yang mutlak telah menjadi relatif. Maksudnya interpretasi manusia terhadap wahyu Tuhan menjadi berbeda-beda tergantung pada manusianya. Apakah semua interpretasi tersebut semuanya benar sehingga manusia bebas memilihnya? Jawaban saya tidak, setiap interpretasi memiliki nilai yang berbeda.
Sesuatu yang relatif tidak dapat mencapai yang mutlak kecuali jika yang relatif itu didasari yang mutlak. Dalam hal ini Bagaimana? Lagi-lagi menurut saya, pemahaman manusia terhadap wahyu Tuhan adalah relatif, dan wahyu Tuhan adalah mutlak. Agar pemahaman manusia tersebut mencapai wahyu Tuhan maka pemahaman yang relatif itu harus didasari oleh metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan. Pemahaman yang didasari metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan adalah hal yang mutlak dilakukan manusia untuk memahami wahyu Tuhan. Mungkin ada yang berkata metode itu juga relatif sifatnya, saya jawab ya tetapi yang mutlak adalah anda harus memahami dengan metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan apapun bentuknya. Yang jelas Tuhan telah menganugerahkan Akal kepada manusia yang akan menuntunnya pada metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan. Jadi bisa ditambahkan adalah mutlak manusia berusaha semampunya dengan akal yang ia punya untuk mencapai metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan.
Kesimpulannya yang menjadi absolutisme agama adalah
• Ketuhanan
• Kenabian
• Wahyu Tuhan atau Kitab suci
• Interpretasi Wahyu Tuhan dengan metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
• Manusia berusaha semampunya mencapai metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
Dan hasil dari absolutisme agama ini bisa bermacam-macam karena terdapat unsur yang relatif di dalamnya yaitu
• Interpretasi manusia terhadap wahyu Tuhan
• Metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
Kedua unsur ini menyebabkan absolutisme agama menjadi relatif. Kalau saya, saya merasa sudah cukup puas dengan ini karena setelah melalui semua ini saya dapat meyakinkan diri saya bahwa saya telah melakukan apa yang saya bisa dan Tuhan pasti tahu itu.
• Ketuhanan
• Kenabian
• Wahyu Tuhan atau Kitab suci
• Interpretasi Wahyu Tuhan dengan metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
• Manusia berusaha semampunya mencapai metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
Dan hasil dari absolutisme agama ini bisa bermacam-macam karena terdapat unsur yang relatif di dalamnya yaitu
• Interpretasi manusia terhadap wahyu Tuhan
• Metode terbaik yang bisa dilakukan
Kedua unsur ini menyebabkan absolutisme agama menjadi relatif. Kalau saya, saya merasa sudah cukup puas dengan ini karena setelah melalui semua ini saya dapat meyakinkan diri saya bahwa saya telah melakukan apa yang saya bisa dan Tuhan pasti tahu itu.
Sayangnya ada sekelompok orang yang tidak mengerti masalah ini, mereka berusaha mengabsolutkan sesuatu yang relatif. Mereka meyakini bahwa mereka yang paling benar dan menyerang setiap keyakinan orang lain yang berbeda dengan mereka. Keyakinan bahwa mereka yang paling benar adalah sah-sah saja karena itu absolutisme agama mereka. Tetapi menyerang orang lain jelas tidak benar, ini yang saya maksud mengabsolutkan yang relatif dan ini melanggar hukum relativitas manusia. Setiap manusia yang beragama memiliki keyakinan yang sangat ia hargai melebihi apapun, dan ketika keyakinan ini diserang akan terasa menyakitkan bagi dirinya. Jadi ketika mereka menyerang orang lain yang menurut mereka menegakkan kebenaran sebenarnya mereka menyakiti hati orang lain.
Kesalahan mereka adalah mereka tidak menyadari teritori orang lain, teritori yang sepenuhnya milik orang lain dimana orang lain berhak merasa tenang dan nyaman. Mereka tidak memandang sesuatu yang relatif yaitu bahwa orang lain memiliki interpretasi dan metode yang berbeda. Mereka tidak memandang sesuatu yang relatif yaitu bahwa orang lain sudah semampunya berusaha. Yang mereka lihat hanyalah yang absolut yaitu orang lain salah karena berbeda dengan mereka dan harus mereka serang. Tindakan seperti ini adalah bunuh diri sosial yang akan membuat mereka terasingkan dalam kehidupan sosial keyakinan manusia. Dan tidak berlebihan jika cukup banyak orang lain yang akan menyerang balik mereka. Saya harap suatu saat mereka akan menyadari hal ini dan berusaha menghargai relativitas manusia. Kita harus menghargai manusia yang memiliki bermacam-macam keyakinan walaupun anda mungkin tidak menghargai keyakinan bermacam-macam yang dimiliki manusia.
Kamis, 04 Agustus 2016
Profil Lengkap Negara Yunani
Kecuali pohon pinus dan pohon cemara yang tersebar, dataran rendah Yunani memiliki beberapa pohon. Willow, poplar, dan plane tumbuh di sepanjang sungai. Lereng yang lebih rendah dari pegunungan dihiasi dengan semak hijau kering. Pinus dan ek Aleppo melekat di sana-sini di antara lereng berbatu telanjang. Lebih tinggi, bukit-bukit memiliki pepohonan ek, kastanye, dan beech. Pinus dan cemara tumbuh di pegunungan tinggi.
Laut di sekitar daratan dan banyak pulau-pulau Yunani secara tradisional telah menjadi sumber ikan yang penting, baik untuk keperluan rumah tangga dan untuk ekspor. Yunani memiliki berbagai sumber daya mineral, meskipun kebanyakan ditemukan dalam jumlah yang relatif kecil. Mineral utama adalah bauksit (bijih aluminium), lignit (batubara cokelat kelas rendah), magnesit, dan minyak bumi. Mineral lain yang penting secara komersial adalah marmer dan batu kapur.
Ekonomi
Ekonomi Yunani sudah lama berbasis pertanian, dan Yunani tetap memiliki banyak pertanian kecil. Tapi manufaktur telah tumbuh sangat penting. Satu sumber Yunani yang paling berharga adalah iklimnya yang umumnya cerah dan ringan. Bersama dengan banyak situs bersejarah dan kultural negara itu, iklim telah menjadikan pariwisata sebagai industri Yunani yang paling penting.
Jasa
Industri jasa menyumbang lebih dari dua pertiga dari ekonomi Yunani. Wisata dan bisnis terkait membentuk segmen terbesar. Sektor penting lainnya adalah perbankan, keuangan, real estate, perdagangan besar dan eceran, pemerintah, dan pelayanan pendidikan.
Manufaktur
Manufaktur, segmen terbesar berikutnya, menyumbang lebih dari seperempat dari perekonomian. Kebanyakan pabrik Yunani kecil dan berkerumun khususnya di sekitar Athena, Piraeus, dan Thessaloníki. Barang-barang utama yang diproduksi adalah makanan dan minuman olahan (termasuk anggur), tekstil, bahan kimia, logam dan produk logam, dan produk minyak olahan, termasuk bahan bakar.
Pertanian dan Perikanan
Pertanian hanya menyumbang sebagian kecil dari pendapatan nasional Yunani, tetapi mempekerjakan sekitar 20 persen dari angkatan kerja. Kebanyakan sawah Yunani dikerjakan oleh pemiliknya. Tanah terkaya ditemukan di dataran Thessaly dan Makedonia. Tanah tinggi langka, sehingga petani sering menggarap di lahan sempit bertingkat di lereng bukit. Iklim ringan baik untuk berbagai tanaman. Musim dingin yang pendek dan musim semi yang hangat membuat panen lebih awal.
Gandum adalah tanaman utama, terutama di Thessaly dan Makedonia. Gandum ditanam di sekitar setengah lahan pertanian. Biji-bijian lainnya adalah jagung, barley, oat, dan gandum hitam. Tanaman lain meliputi gula bit, buah zaitun, tomat, anggur, tembakau, dan kentang.
Yunani terkenal dengan pohon-pohon zaitun dan anggur. Anggur diolah menjadi minuman anggur, makanan penutup, dan kismis. Zaitun tumbuh dengan baik di Yunani tengah dan selatan. Mereka digunakan untuk membuat minyak zaitun dan juga diekspor. Buah-buahan citrus, persik, ara, apel, pir, dan kacang-kacangan juga ditanam.
Peternakan merupakan bagian penting dari pertanian Yunani. Sejumlah besar domba dan kambing dipelihara karena mereka dapat merumput pada tanah tipis berbatu. Sapi diternak di dataran utara. Keledai, kuda, dan keledai adalah hewan pekerja utama. Meskipun produksi ternak telah meningkat dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, Yunani masih harus mengimpor sejumlah besar daging dan produk susu.
Yunani memiliki industri perikanan yang sibuk. Sebagian besar pelabuhan memiliki armada perahu kecil pencari ikan yang independen. Armada pencari spons berlayar dari pulau Kalymnos dan Lemnos di Laut Aegea.
Transportasi
Karena Yunani berpegunungan, masih ada bagian dari pedalaman yang dapat dicapai hanya dengan keledai atau bagal. Tapi semua kota-kota besar dihubungkan oleh jalan raya. Layanan penerbangan menghubungkan daratan Yunani dengan pulau-pulau besar. Olympic Airways, maskapai nasional, menyediakan layanan penerbangan domestik dan internasional. Orang Yunani telah dikenal sebagai pelaut sejak zaman kuno. Mereka tetap menjadi bangsa pelayaran terkemuka dan memiliki salah satu armada perdagangan terbesar di dunia.
Komunikasi
Sebagian besar rumah tangga Yunani memiliki telepon dan radio, meskipun sedikit yang memiliki televisi. Penggunaan internet terus meningkat. Koran harian utama negara itu, Ta Nea, diterbitkan di Athena.
Kota-kota Besar
Pada suatu waktu, kebanyakan orang Yunani hidup di pedesaan, biasanya di desa-desa kecil. Hampir dua pertiga dari penduduk Yunani sekarang tinggal di daerah perkotaan. Dari jumlah itu, hampir setengahnya hidup di wilayah metropolitan yang lebih besar dari Athena, ibukota dan kota terbesar Yunani.
Athena, bersama dengan Piraeus (pelabuhan Athena), adalah jantung negara. Sebagai negara-kota paling terkenal dari jaman Yunani klasik, Athena sekarang menjadi pusat pemerintahan, industri, budaya, dan perdagangan Yunani.
Yunani memiliki beberapa kota lain untuk dibandingkan dengan Athena Besar dalam hal ukuran. Thessaloníki (Salonika), sebuah pelabuhan di utara, adalah kota terbesar kedua di negara itu. Araxos (Patras), di Peloponnese utara, adalah kota komersial dan pelabuhan yang penting di Teluk Patras.
Pemerintah
Di sebagian besar sejarah modernnya, Yunani adalah monarki atau kerajaan. Raja terakhir diasingkan menyusul kudeta militer pemerintah pada tahun 1967. Monarki dihapuskan pada tahun 1973. Ketika pemerintahan sipil dikembalikan pada tahun 1974, orang Yunani menolak kembalinya raja dalam sebuah referendum rakyat. Sebuah republik secara resmi didirikan di bawah konstitusi baru, yang mulai berlaku pada tahun 1975.
300 anggota legislatif satu rumah Yunani, Parlemen (Vouli ton Ellinon), dipilih untuk masa jabatan 4 tahun. Parlemen memilih presiden, yang merupakan kepala negara, untuk jangka waktu 5 tahun. Presiden menunjuk perdana menteri untuk memimpin pemerintahan. Perdana menteri biasanya adalah pemimpin partai politik yang memenangkan mayoritas (lebih dari setengah) dari kursi di parlemen dalam pemilu.
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